CHILDHOOD
Childhood begins when the relative dependency of babyhood is over, at approximately the age of two years, and extends to the time when the child becomes sexually mature, at approximately thirteen years for the average girl and fourteen years for the average boy. After children become sexually mature, they are known as adolescents.
During this long period of time-roughly eleven years for girls and twelve years for boys marked changes take place in the child both physically and psychologically.
Because cultural pressures and expectations to learn certain things at one age are different from the pressures and expectations at another age, a child in the early part of childhood is quite different from a child in the latter part of the period.
Childhood should be subdivided into two separate periods early and late childhood.
Early childhood extends from two to six years, and late childhood extends from six to the time the child becomes sexually mature.
Thus early childhood begins at the conclusion of babyhood the age when dependency is practically a thing of the past and is being replaced by growing independence and ends at about the time the child enters first grade in school.
In a culture where the law requires that children must begin their formal education when they reach their sixth birthday, social pressures and social expectations play an important role in determining how children differ before they enter school from those who have already been subjected to school experiences.
If formal entrance into school came a year earlier or a year later, the dividing line between early and late childhood would be at five years in the former case and at seven years in the latter case.
The new pressures and expectations that accompany the child's formal entrance into school result in changes in patterns of behavior, interests, and values.
As a result, children become "different" people from what they were earlier. It is this difference in their psychological makeup rather than the difference in their physical makeup that justifies dividing this long span of years into two subdivisions, early and late childhood.
CHARACTERISTICS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD
Names Used by Parents Most parents consider early childhood a problem age or a troublesome age. The reason that behavior problems dominate the early childhood years is that young children are developing distinctive personalities and are demanding an independence. They are obstinate, stubborn, disobedient, negativistic, and antagonistic. They have frequent temper tantrums, they are often bothered by bad dreams at night and irrational fears during the day, and they suffer from jealousies.
Because of these problems, early childhood seems a less appealing age.
Parents often refer to early childhood as the toy age because young children spend much of their waking time playing with toys
Names Used by Educators
Educators refer to the early childhood years as the preschool age to distinguish it from the time when children are considered old enough, both physically and mentally, to cope with the work they will be expected to do when they begin their formal schooling.
Names Used by Psychologists: One of the most commonly applied names is the pre-gang age, the time when children are learning the foundations of social behavior as a preparation for the more highly organized social life they will be required to adjust to when they enter first grade.
Because the major development that occurs during early childhood centers around gaining control over the environment, many psychologists refer to early childhood as the exploratory age, a label which implies that children want to know what their environment is, how it works, how it feels, and how they can be a part of it. This includes people as well as inanimate objects. One common way of exploring in early childhood is by asking questions:- thus this period is often referred to as the questioning age, imitative age , creative age.
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
Growth during early childhood proceeds at a slow rate as compared with the rapid rate of growth in babyhood. Early childhood is a time of relatively even growth, though there are seasonal variations; July to mid-December is the most favorable time for increases in weight, and April to mid-August is most favorable for height increases.
There are individual differences in all aspects of physical development. Children of superior intelligence, for example, tend to be taller in early childhood than those of average or below-average intelligence and to shed their temporary teeth sooner. While sex differences in height and weight are not pronounced, ossification of the bones and shedding of the temporary teeth are more advanced, in girls than in boys. Because children from higher socioeconomic groups tend to be better nourished and receive better prenatal and postnatal care, variations in height, weight, and muscular development are in their favor.
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
Height
The average annual increase in height is three inches. By the age of six, the average child measures 46.6 inches.
Weight
The average annual increase in weight is 3 to 5 pounds. At age six, children should weigh approximately seven times as much as they did at birth. The average girl weighs 48.5 pounds, and the average boy weighs 49 pounds.
Body Proportions
Body proportions change markedly, and the "baby look" disappears. Facial features remain small but the chin becomes more pronounced and the neck elongates. There is a gradual decrease in the stockiness of the trunk, and the body tends to become cone-shaped, with a flattened abdomen, a broader and flatter chest, and shoulders that are broader and squarer. The arms and legs lengthen and may become spindly, and the hands and feet grow bigger.
Body Build
Differences in body build become apparent for the first time in early childhood. Some children have an endomorphic or flabby, fat body build, some have a mesomorphic or sturdy, muscular body build, and some have an ectomorphic or relatively thin body build.
Bones and Muscles
The bones ossify at different rates in different parts of the body, following the laws of developmental direction. The muscles become larger, stronger, and heavier, with the result that children look thinner as early childhood progresses, even though they weigh more.
Fat
Children who tend toward endomorphy have more adipose than muscular tissue; those who tend toward mesomorphy have more muscular than adipose tissue; and those with an ectomorphic build have both small muscles and little adipose tissue.
Teeth
During the first four to six months of early childhood, the last four baby teeth, the back molars erupt. During the last half year of early childhood, the baby teeth begin to be replaced by permanent teeth. The first to come out are the front central incisors the first baby teeth to appear. When early childhood ends, the child generally has one or two permanent teeth in front and some gaps where permanent teeth will eventually erupt.
At the end of sensorimotor stage:
Child achieves object permanence—the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched.
Infant understands a differentiation between self and world. At around 5.5 and 6.5 months of age, an infant can understand simple causal factors .
Piaget’s Preoperational Stage of Development
Preoperational stage stretches from approximately 2 to 7 years of age
Signifies time when stable concepts are formed, mental reasoning emerges
Egocentrism begins strongly & then weakens
Magical beliefs are constructed
Child does not yet think in operational way
Operations being internalized sets of actions that allow child to do mentally what before did physically
Symbolic Function Substage
First substage of preoperational thought, occurring roughly between ages of 2 & 4
During which young child gains ability to represent object mentally that is not present
Egocentrism feature of preoperational thought in which child is not able to distinguish between one’s own perspective & someone else’s perspective
Animism limitation within preoperational thought, whereby child believes that inanimate objects have ‘lifelike’ qualities & capable of action
Intuitive Thought Substage
Second substage of preoperational thought occurring approximately between 4 & 7 years
Children begin to use primitive reasoning & want to know answers to all sorts of questions
Centration focusing of attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all others- inability to shift quality or function from one set of criteria to another
Conservation evidence of centration in child’s idea of amount remaining same regardless of how container changes
Piaget’s 6 Sub stages of Sensorimotor Development
Schemas are patterns of actions and thoughts that organize knowledge. The basic unit for an organized pattern of sensorimotor functioning.
Actions are behavioral schemas. Their development characterizes infancy, such as that of simple actions and reflexes.
Thoughts are cognitive activities or mental schemas, which develop in childhood, such as classifying objects by size, color, or shape.
Assimilation incorporates new information into existing knowledge.
Accommodation adjusts existing knowledge to fit new information.
Organization is Piaget’s concept of grouping isolated behaviors into a higher-order system.
The child becomes skilled at using tools over time, one at a time until experiences become skills.
Equilibration:
Piaget’s mechanism to explain how children shift from one stage of thought to another.
It is lost when children have cognitive conflicts.
Achieved when assimilation and accommodation are used together to resolve a conflict.
Piaget’s 6 substages of the sensorimotor stage of infant development last from birth to 2 years of age.
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Question-asking behavior follows Piaget's model of cognitive development. It reflects the logic of their thinking processes.
At the preoperational stage, the child's questions concerning physical causality reflect largely undifferentiated cognitive structures in which the child's concerns with motivations and intentions are not separated from the causal explanations.
When the child moves into the concrete operations stage, his questioning behavior reflects a higher level of differentiation: thus the questions separate physical causality from psychological causality.
The question asking behaviors of children at the level of concrete operations are initially concerned with physical causality and then shift to a diverse number of categories.
Language is a system of words, symbols, and gestures that create shared communication that transcends time (future, present, and past).
Language’s five systems of rules:
Phonology: sound system of language, with phoneme being smallest unit of sound with meaning
Morphology: units of meaning in word formation, with morpheme being the smallest unit of meaning
Syntax: how words are combined
Semantics: the meanings of sentences and words
Pragmatics: use of appropriate language in different contexts
On average, a child
Understands about 50 words at age 13 months
Speaks first word at 10–15 months of age
Can speak about 50 words at 18 months of age
Average 2-year-old can speak about 200 words.
Vocabulary spurt begins at approximately 18 months of age.
Two-word utterances occur at about 18–24 months.
Overextension and underextension of words are common.
Telegraphic speech is use of short and precise words.
Some Language Milestones in Infancy
Birth
1 to 2 months
6 months
8 to 12 months
10–15 months
18 months
18 to 24 months
Specific regions of the brain are predisposed to be used for language
Broca’s Area (word production)
Wernicke’s Area (word comprehension)
Damage to either of these areas produces types of aphasia, a loss or impairment of language processing.
Erikson’s psychosocial theory
LINGUSITIC DEVELOPMENT
By the time children are two years old, most of the prespeech forms of communication they found so useful during babyhood have been abandoned. Young children no longer babble, and their crying is greatly curtailed. They may use gestures, but mainly as supplements to speech-to emphasize the meaning of the words Early childhood is normally a time when rapid strides are made in the major tasks of learning to speak-building up a vocabulary, mastering pronunciation, and combining words into sentences.
During early childhood, there is a strong motivation on the part of most children to learn to speak
First, learning to speak is an essential tool in socialization
Second, learning to speak is a tool in achieving independence. Early childhood is popularly known as the chatterbox age.
Improvement in Comprehension
Comprehension is greatly influenced by how attentively children listen to what is said to them.
Pronunciation of Words.
Certain sounds and sound combinations are especially difficult for a young child to learn to pronounce, such as the consonants z, w, d, s, and g and the consonant combinations st, str, dr, and fl
Vocabulary Building
Young children's vocabularies increase rapidly as they learn new words and new meanings for old words. Young children learn a general vocabulary of words, such as "good" and "bad," "give" and "take," as well as many words with specific usage, such as numbers and the names of colors.
Forming Sentences
Three- or four-word sentences are used as early as two years of age and commonly at three. Many' of these sentences are incomplete, consisting mainly of nouns and lacking verbs, prepositions, and conjunctions. After age three, the child forms six- to eight-word sentences containing all parts of speech.
Content of Speech
At first, the speech of young children is egocentric in the sense that they talk mainly about themselves, their interests, their families, and their possessions. Toward the end of early childhood, socialized speech begins and children talk about other people as well as about themselves. But much of this early socialized speech is unsocial in that it is heavily weighted with criticism of others, and it may take the form of tattling or complaining.
Most young children also make unkind, derogatory comments about other people, and about their actions and their possessions. They also engage in name-calling, especially when they are angry. Boasting, primarily about material possessions, is very common at this age.
As the size of the play group becomes larger, children's speech becomes more social and less egocentric. They become less critical, they ask fewer questions, and they give more commands. There is evidence that small social groupings are more favorable for the development of speech in young children than large social groupings.
EMOTIONS
Emotions are especially intense during early childhood.
Although any emotion may be "heightened" in the sense that it occurs more frequently and more intensely than is normal for that particular individual, heightened emotionality in early childhood is characterized by temper tantrums, intense fears, and unreasonable outbursts of jealousy.
Part of the intense emotionality of children at this age may be traced to fatigue due to strenuous and prolonged play, rebellion against taking naps, and the fact that they may eat too little.
Even more important, children whose parents expect them to measure up to unrealistically high standards will experience more emotional tension than children whose parents are more realistic in their expectations.
FACTORS INFLUENCING HOW MUCH YOUNG CHILDREN TALK
Intelligence
Type of Discipline
Ordinal Position
Family Size
Socioeconomic Status
Racial Status
Sex-Role Typing
Bilingualism
COMMON EMOTIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD
Anger
Fear
Jealousy
Curiosity
Envy
Joy
Grief
Affection
Parenting Styles
Authoritarian: Parent places a high value on obedience and respect for authority
Permissive: Parent imposes minimal controls on their children
Authoritative: Parent enforce standards, but encourages verbal give-and-take with the child
School-The Transition to Elementary School
In elementary school children take up a new role:
Interacting & developing relationships
Adopting new reference groups
Developing new standards by which to judge themselves
School - Teachers
Teachers have a prominent influence in middle and late childhood
Symbolize authority by establishing:
Classroom’s climate
Conditions of interaction among students
Nature of group functioning.
Erik Erikson believes that good teachers should be able to produce a sense of industry, rather than inferiority, in their children
A teacher needs to be aware of needs of each student & create a structure by which academic material is generated while consideration is made for individual learning styles of students
Childhood begins when the relative dependency of babyhood is over, at approximately the age of two years, and extends to the time when the child becomes sexually mature, at approximately thirteen years for the average girl and fourteen years for the average boy. After children become sexually mature, they are known as adolescents.
During this long period of time-roughly eleven years for girls and twelve years for boys marked changes take place in the child both physically and psychologically.
Because cultural pressures and expectations to learn certain things at one age are different from the pressures and expectations at another age, a child in the early part of childhood is quite different from a child in the latter part of the period.
Childhood should be subdivided into two separate periods early and late childhood.
Early childhood extends from two to six years, and late childhood extends from six to the time the child becomes sexually mature.
Thus early childhood begins at the conclusion of babyhood the age when dependency is practically a thing of the past and is being replaced by growing independence and ends at about the time the child enters first grade in school.
In a culture where the law requires that children must begin their formal education when they reach their sixth birthday, social pressures and social expectations play an important role in determining how children differ before they enter school from those who have already been subjected to school experiences.
If formal entrance into school came a year earlier or a year later, the dividing line between early and late childhood would be at five years in the former case and at seven years in the latter case.
The new pressures and expectations that accompany the child's formal entrance into school result in changes in patterns of behavior, interests, and values.
As a result, children become "different" people from what they were earlier. It is this difference in their psychological makeup rather than the difference in their physical makeup that justifies dividing this long span of years into two subdivisions, early and late childhood.
CHARACTERISTICS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD
Names Used by Parents Most parents consider early childhood a problem age or a troublesome age. The reason that behavior problems dominate the early childhood years is that young children are developing distinctive personalities and are demanding an independence. They are obstinate, stubborn, disobedient, negativistic, and antagonistic. They have frequent temper tantrums, they are often bothered by bad dreams at night and irrational fears during the day, and they suffer from jealousies.
Because of these problems, early childhood seems a less appealing age.
Parents often refer to early childhood as the toy age because young children spend much of their waking time playing with toys
Names Used by Educators
Educators refer to the early childhood years as the preschool age to distinguish it from the time when children are considered old enough, both physically and mentally, to cope with the work they will be expected to do when they begin their formal schooling.
Names Used by Psychologists: One of the most commonly applied names is the pre-gang age, the time when children are learning the foundations of social behavior as a preparation for the more highly organized social life they will be required to adjust to when they enter first grade.
Because the major development that occurs during early childhood centers around gaining control over the environment, many psychologists refer to early childhood as the exploratory age, a label which implies that children want to know what their environment is, how it works, how it feels, and how they can be a part of it. This includes people as well as inanimate objects. One common way of exploring in early childhood is by asking questions:- thus this period is often referred to as the questioning age, imitative age , creative age.
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
Growth during early childhood proceeds at a slow rate as compared with the rapid rate of growth in babyhood. Early childhood is a time of relatively even growth, though there are seasonal variations; July to mid-December is the most favorable time for increases in weight, and April to mid-August is most favorable for height increases.
There are individual differences in all aspects of physical development. Children of superior intelligence, for example, tend to be taller in early childhood than those of average or below-average intelligence and to shed their temporary teeth sooner. While sex differences in height and weight are not pronounced, ossification of the bones and shedding of the temporary teeth are more advanced, in girls than in boys. Because children from higher socioeconomic groups tend to be better nourished and receive better prenatal and postnatal care, variations in height, weight, and muscular development are in their favor.
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
Height
The average annual increase in height is three inches. By the age of six, the average child measures 46.6 inches.
Weight
The average annual increase in weight is 3 to 5 pounds. At age six, children should weigh approximately seven times as much as they did at birth. The average girl weighs 48.5 pounds, and the average boy weighs 49 pounds.
Body Proportions
Body proportions change markedly, and the "baby look" disappears. Facial features remain small but the chin becomes more pronounced and the neck elongates. There is a gradual decrease in the stockiness of the trunk, and the body tends to become cone-shaped, with a flattened abdomen, a broader and flatter chest, and shoulders that are broader and squarer. The arms and legs lengthen and may become spindly, and the hands and feet grow bigger.
Body Build
Differences in body build become apparent for the first time in early childhood. Some children have an endomorphic or flabby, fat body build, some have a mesomorphic or sturdy, muscular body build, and some have an ectomorphic or relatively thin body build.
Bones and Muscles
The bones ossify at different rates in different parts of the body, following the laws of developmental direction. The muscles become larger, stronger, and heavier, with the result that children look thinner as early childhood progresses, even though they weigh more.
Fat
Children who tend toward endomorphy have more adipose than muscular tissue; those who tend toward mesomorphy have more muscular than adipose tissue; and those with an ectomorphic build have both small muscles and little adipose tissue.
Teeth
During the first four to six months of early childhood, the last four baby teeth, the back molars erupt. During the last half year of early childhood, the baby teeth begin to be replaced by permanent teeth. The first to come out are the front central incisors the first baby teeth to appear. When early childhood ends, the child generally has one or two permanent teeth in front and some gaps where permanent teeth will eventually erupt.
At the end of sensorimotor stage:
Child achieves object permanence—the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched.
Infant understands a differentiation between self and world. At around 5.5 and 6.5 months of age, an infant can understand simple causal factors .
Piaget’s Preoperational Stage of Development
Preoperational stage stretches from approximately 2 to 7 years of age
Signifies time when stable concepts are formed, mental reasoning emerges
Egocentrism begins strongly & then weakens
Magical beliefs are constructed
Child does not yet think in operational way
Operations being internalized sets of actions that allow child to do mentally what before did physically
Symbolic Function Substage
First substage of preoperational thought, occurring roughly between ages of 2 & 4
During which young child gains ability to represent object mentally that is not present
Egocentrism feature of preoperational thought in which child is not able to distinguish between one’s own perspective & someone else’s perspective
Animism limitation within preoperational thought, whereby child believes that inanimate objects have ‘lifelike’ qualities & capable of action
Intuitive Thought Substage
Second substage of preoperational thought occurring approximately between 4 & 7 years
Children begin to use primitive reasoning & want to know answers to all sorts of questions
Centration focusing of attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all others- inability to shift quality or function from one set of criteria to another
Conservation evidence of centration in child’s idea of amount remaining same regardless of how container changes
Piaget’s 6 Sub stages of Sensorimotor Development
Schemas are patterns of actions and thoughts that organize knowledge. The basic unit for an organized pattern of sensorimotor functioning.
Actions are behavioral schemas. Their development characterizes infancy, such as that of simple actions and reflexes.
Thoughts are cognitive activities or mental schemas, which develop in childhood, such as classifying objects by size, color, or shape.
Assimilation incorporates new information into existing knowledge.
Accommodation adjusts existing knowledge to fit new information.
Organization is Piaget’s concept of grouping isolated behaviors into a higher-order system.
The child becomes skilled at using tools over time, one at a time until experiences become skills.
Equilibration:
Piaget’s mechanism to explain how children shift from one stage of thought to another.
It is lost when children have cognitive conflicts.
Achieved when assimilation and accommodation are used together to resolve a conflict.
Piaget’s 6 substages of the sensorimotor stage of infant development last from birth to 2 years of age.
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Question-asking behavior follows Piaget's model of cognitive development. It reflects the logic of their thinking processes.
At the preoperational stage, the child's questions concerning physical causality reflect largely undifferentiated cognitive structures in which the child's concerns with motivations and intentions are not separated from the causal explanations.
When the child moves into the concrete operations stage, his questioning behavior reflects a higher level of differentiation: thus the questions separate physical causality from psychological causality.
The question asking behaviors of children at the level of concrete operations are initially concerned with physical causality and then shift to a diverse number of categories.
Language is a system of words, symbols, and gestures that create shared communication that transcends time (future, present, and past).
Language’s five systems of rules:
Phonology: sound system of language, with phoneme being smallest unit of sound with meaning
Morphology: units of meaning in word formation, with morpheme being the smallest unit of meaning
Syntax: how words are combined
Semantics: the meanings of sentences and words
Pragmatics: use of appropriate language in different contexts
On average, a child
Understands about 50 words at age 13 months
Speaks first word at 10–15 months of age
Can speak about 50 words at 18 months of age
Average 2-year-old can speak about 200 words.
Vocabulary spurt begins at approximately 18 months of age.
Two-word utterances occur at about 18–24 months.
Overextension and underextension of words are common.
Telegraphic speech is use of short and precise words.
Some Language Milestones in Infancy
Birth
1 to 2 months
6 months
8 to 12 months
10–15 months
18 months
18 to 24 months
Specific regions of the brain are predisposed to be used for language
Broca’s Area (word production)
Wernicke’s Area (word comprehension)
Damage to either of these areas produces types of aphasia, a loss or impairment of language processing.
Erikson’s psychosocial theory
LINGUSITIC DEVELOPMENT
By the time children are two years old, most of the prespeech forms of communication they found so useful during babyhood have been abandoned. Young children no longer babble, and their crying is greatly curtailed. They may use gestures, but mainly as supplements to speech-to emphasize the meaning of the words Early childhood is normally a time when rapid strides are made in the major tasks of learning to speak-building up a vocabulary, mastering pronunciation, and combining words into sentences.
During early childhood, there is a strong motivation on the part of most children to learn to speak
First, learning to speak is an essential tool in socialization
Second, learning to speak is a tool in achieving independence. Early childhood is popularly known as the chatterbox age.
Improvement in Comprehension
Comprehension is greatly influenced by how attentively children listen to what is said to them.
Pronunciation of Words.
Certain sounds and sound combinations are especially difficult for a young child to learn to pronounce, such as the consonants z, w, d, s, and g and the consonant combinations st, str, dr, and fl
Vocabulary Building
Young children's vocabularies increase rapidly as they learn new words and new meanings for old words. Young children learn a general vocabulary of words, such as "good" and "bad," "give" and "take," as well as many words with specific usage, such as numbers and the names of colors.
Forming Sentences
Three- or four-word sentences are used as early as two years of age and commonly at three. Many' of these sentences are incomplete, consisting mainly of nouns and lacking verbs, prepositions, and conjunctions. After age three, the child forms six- to eight-word sentences containing all parts of speech.
Content of Speech
At first, the speech of young children is egocentric in the sense that they talk mainly about themselves, their interests, their families, and their possessions. Toward the end of early childhood, socialized speech begins and children talk about other people as well as about themselves. But much of this early socialized speech is unsocial in that it is heavily weighted with criticism of others, and it may take the form of tattling or complaining.
Most young children also make unkind, derogatory comments about other people, and about their actions and their possessions. They also engage in name-calling, especially when they are angry. Boasting, primarily about material possessions, is very common at this age.
As the size of the play group becomes larger, children's speech becomes more social and less egocentric. They become less critical, they ask fewer questions, and they give more commands. There is evidence that small social groupings are more favorable for the development of speech in young children than large social groupings.
EMOTIONS
Emotions are especially intense during early childhood.
Although any emotion may be "heightened" in the sense that it occurs more frequently and more intensely than is normal for that particular individual, heightened emotionality in early childhood is characterized by temper tantrums, intense fears, and unreasonable outbursts of jealousy.
Part of the intense emotionality of children at this age may be traced to fatigue due to strenuous and prolonged play, rebellion against taking naps, and the fact that they may eat too little.
Even more important, children whose parents expect them to measure up to unrealistically high standards will experience more emotional tension than children whose parents are more realistic in their expectations.
FACTORS INFLUENCING HOW MUCH YOUNG CHILDREN TALK
Intelligence
Type of Discipline
Ordinal Position
Family Size
Socioeconomic Status
Racial Status
Sex-Role Typing
Bilingualism
COMMON EMOTIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD
Anger
Fear
Jealousy
Curiosity
Envy
Joy
Grief
Affection
Parenting Styles
Authoritarian: Parent places a high value on obedience and respect for authority
Permissive: Parent imposes minimal controls on their children
Authoritative: Parent enforce standards, but encourages verbal give-and-take with the child
School-The Transition to Elementary School
In elementary school children take up a new role:
Interacting & developing relationships
Adopting new reference groups
Developing new standards by which to judge themselves
School - Teachers
Teachers have a prominent influence in middle and late childhood
Symbolize authority by establishing:
Classroom’s climate
Conditions of interaction among students
Nature of group functioning.
Erik Erikson believes that good teachers should be able to produce a sense of industry, rather than inferiority, in their children
A teacher needs to be aware of needs of each student & create a structure by which academic material is generated while consideration is made for individual learning styles of students
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